ARCHIVES
Year 2026 · Volume 7 · Issue 5
Original Article
Multi-Objective Optimal Sizing and Energy Management of Offshore Wind-Powered Green Hydrogen Plants: Pareto Trade-Offs Between Levelized Cost of Hydrogen, Electrolyzer Degradation, and Wind Curtailment
Adel Elgammal1
1 Professor, Utilities and Sustainable Engineering, The University of Trinidad & Tobago UTT.
Published Online: September-October 2026
Pages: 42-66
Cite this article
↗ https://www.doi.org/10.59256/ijire.20260705007
References
[1] K. Cha, C.-W. Niu, J. A. F. O. Correia, and L. Manuel, “System configurations and cross-domain interdependencies in offshore wind–hydrogen production,” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Art. no. 117048, 2026, doi: 10.1016/j.rser.2026.117048.
[2] S. Ramakrishnan, M. Delpisheh, C. Convery, D. Niblett, M. Vinothkannan, and M. Mamlouk, “Offshore green hydrogen production from wind energy: Critical review and perspective,” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 195, Art. no. 114320, 2024, doi: 10.1016/j.rser.2024.114320.
[3] D. Niblett, M. Delpisheh, S. Ramakrishnan, and M. Mamlouk, “Review of next generation hydrogen production from offshore wind using water electrolysis,” Journal of Power Sources, vol. 592, Art. no. 233904, 2024, doi: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2023.233904.
[4] B. A. Oni, S. E. Sanni, and A. N. Misiani, “Green hydrogen production in offshore environments: A comprehensive review, current challenges, economics and future-prospects,” International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, vol. 125, pp. 277–309, 2025, doi: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2025.03.429.
[5] A. Singlitico, J. Østergaard, and S. Chatzivasileiadis, “Onshore, offshore or in-turbine electrolysis? Techno-economic overview of alternative integration designs for green hydrogen production into Offshore Wind Power Hubs,” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Transition, vol. 1, Art. no. 100005, 2021, doi: 10.1016/j.rset.2021.100005.
[6] H. Groenemans, G. Saur, C. Mittelsteadt, J. Lattimer, and H. Xu, “Techno-economic analysis of offshore wind PEM water electrolysis for H₂ production,” Current Opinion in Chemical Engineering, vol. 37, Art. no. 100828, 2022, doi: 10.1016/j.coche.2022.100828.
[7] R. Travaglini and L. S. F. Frowijn, “Offshore or onshore hydrogen production? A critical analysis on costs and operational considerations for the Dutch North Sea,” Applied Energy, vol. 397, Art. no. 126290, 2025, doi: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2025.126290.
[8] S. J. P. Hill, O. Bamisile, L. Hatton, I. Staffell, and M. Jansen, “The cost of clean hydrogen from offshore wind and electrolysis,” Journal of Cleaner Production, vol. 445, Art. no. 141162, 2024, doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2024.141162.
[9] D. Jang, K. Kim, K. H. Kim, and S. Kang, “Techno-economic analysis and Monte Carlo simulation for green hydrogen production using offshore wind power plant,” Energy Conversion and Management, vol. 263, Art. no. 115695, 2022, doi: 10.1016/j.enconman.2022.115695.
[10] T. R. Lucas, A. F. Ferreira, R. B. Santos Pereira, and M. Alves, “Hydrogen production from the WindFloat Atlantic offshore wind farm: A techno-economic analysis,” Applied Energy, vol. 310, Art. no. 118481, 2022, doi: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2021.118481.
[11] M. Rezaei, A. Akimov, and E. M. A. Gray, “Techno-economics of offshore wind-based dynamic hydrogen production,” Applied Energy, vol. 374, Art. no. 124030, 2024, doi: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2024.124030.
[12] E. D. Stoutenburg, N. Jenkins, and M. Z. Jacobson, “Electrolysers for mitigating wind curtailment and producing ‘green’ merchant hydrogen,” International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, vol. 36, no. 1, pp. 120–134, 2011, doi: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2010.10.047.
[13] Y. Jiang, W. Huang, and G. Yang, “Electrolysis plant size optimization and benefit analysis of a far offshore wind-hydrogen system based on information gap decision theory and chance constraints programming,” International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, vol. 47, no. 9, pp. 5720–5732, 2022, doi: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2021.11.211.
[14] L. M. Dannappel, L. Cammann, S. You, Y. Zong, and J. Jäschke, “Design of wind-powered alkaline electrolyzers: Balancing economic performance, degradation, and safety,” Energy Conversion and Management, vol. 349, Art. no. 120820, 2026, doi: 10.1016/j.enconman.2025.120820.
[15] H. Zhang and T. Yuan, “Optimization and economic evaluation of a PEM electrolysis system considering its degradation in variable-power operations,” Applied Energy, vol. 324, Art. no. 119760, 2022, doi: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2022.119760.
[16] R. Vandenberghe, G. Humbert, H. Cai, B. P. Koirala, G. Sansavini, and P. Heer, “Optimal sizing and operation of hydrogen generation sites accounting for waste heat recovery,” Applied Energy, vol. 380, Art. no. 125004, 2025, doi: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2024.125004.
[17] A. Babiker, I. Ahmed, A. T. Al-Awami, A. Habib, M. Khalid, and F. Al-Ismail, “Optimal design and sizing of hybrid multi-electrolyzer systems for renewable energy driven green hydrogen in P2H systems,” Applied Energy, vol. 417, Art. no. 128043, 2026, doi: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2026.128043.
[18] T. Wang, X. Cao, and L. Jiao, “PEM water electrolysis for hydrogen production: Fundamentals, advances, and prospects,” Carbon Neutrality, vol. 1, Art. no. 21, 2022, doi: 10.1007/s43979-022-00022-8.
[19] H. Sayed-Ahmed, Á. I. Toldy, and A. Santasalo-Aarnio, “Dynamic operation of proton exchange membrane electrolyzers—Critical review,” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 189, Art. no. 113883, 2024, doi: 10.1016/j.rser.2023.113883.
[20] E. Wallnöfer-Ogris et al., “A review on understanding and identifying degradation mechanisms in PEM water electrolysis cells: Insights for stack application, development, and research,” International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, vol. 65, pp. 381–397, 2024, doi: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2024.04.017.
[21] F. Maoulida, D. Guilbert, M.-B. Camara, and B. Dakyo, “Dynamic electrical degradation of PEM electrolyzers under renewable energy intermittency: Mechanisms, diagnostics, and mitigation strategies—A comprehensive review,” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 225, Art. no. 116170, 2026, doi: 10.1016/j.rser.2025.116170.
[22] H. Sayed-Ahmed, R. Keller, Á. I. Toldy, M. Müller, D. Froning, and A. Santasalo-Aarnio, “Data-driven degradation analysis of proton exchange membrane electrolyzer stacks under dynamic load operation,” Energy and AI, vol. 25, Art. no. 100790, 2026, doi: 10.1016/j.egyai.2026.100790.
[23] J. Núñez, C. Lara, S. Tejos, L. Palma, L. Morán, and C. Carrasco, “Influence of dynamic operating cycles on the performance and degradation of PEM electrolyzers: A combined electrical, electrochemical, and morphological analysis,” Energy Conversion and Management, vol. 349, Art. no. 120883, 2026, doi: 10.1016/j.enconman.2025.120883.
[24] J. Park, S. Kang, S. Kim, H. Kim, H.-S. Cho, C. Lee, M. Kim, and J. H. Lee, “The impact of degradation on the economics of green hydrogen,” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 213, Art. no. 115472, 2025, doi: 10.1016/j.rser.2025.115472.
[25] M. Arnold, J. Brandt, G. Tjarks, A. Vanselow, and R. Hanke-Rauschenbach, “Cost-optimized replacement strategies for water electrolysis systems affected by degradation,” Energy Conversion and Management: X, vol. 28, Art. no. 101261, 2025, doi: 10.1016/j.ecmx.2025.101261.
[26] Y. Pu, Q. Li, X. Zou, R. Li, L. Li, W. Chen, and H. Liu, “Optimal sizing for an integrated energy system considering degradation and seasonal hydrogen storage,” Applied Energy, vol. 302, Art. no. 117542, 2021, doi: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2021.117542.
[27] T. Egeland-Eriksen and S. Sartori, “Techno-economic analysis of the effect of a novel price-based control system on the hydrogen production for an offshore 1.5 GW wind-hydrogen system,” Energy Reports, vol. 11, pp. 2633–2655, 2024, doi: 10.1016/j.egyr.2024.02.016.
[28] J. Park, S. Kang, S. Kim, H. Kim, S.-K. Kim, and J. H. Lee, “Optimizing green hydrogen systems: Balancing economic viability and reliability in the face of supply-demand volatility,” Applied Energy, vol. 368, Art. no. 123492, 2024, doi: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2024.123492.
[29] H. Sharma, G. Mandil, É. Monnier, E. Cor, and P. Zwolinski, “Sizing a hybrid hydrogen production plant including life cycle assessment indicators by combining NSGA-III and principal component analysis (PCA),” Energy Conversion and Management: X, vol. 18, Art. no. 100361, 2023, doi: 10.1016/j.ecmx.2023.100361.
[30] M. Tostado-Véliz, A. Rezaee Jordehi, S. A. Mansouri, A. Escámez, Y. Z. Alharthi, and F. Jurado, “Risk-averse electrolyser sizing in industrial parks: An efficient stochastic-robust approach,” Applied Energy, vol. 367, Art. no. 123389, 2024, doi: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2024.123389.
[2] S. Ramakrishnan, M. Delpisheh, C. Convery, D. Niblett, M. Vinothkannan, and M. Mamlouk, “Offshore green hydrogen production from wind energy: Critical review and perspective,” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 195, Art. no. 114320, 2024, doi: 10.1016/j.rser.2024.114320.
[3] D. Niblett, M. Delpisheh, S. Ramakrishnan, and M. Mamlouk, “Review of next generation hydrogen production from offshore wind using water electrolysis,” Journal of Power Sources, vol. 592, Art. no. 233904, 2024, doi: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2023.233904.
[4] B. A. Oni, S. E. Sanni, and A. N. Misiani, “Green hydrogen production in offshore environments: A comprehensive review, current challenges, economics and future-prospects,” International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, vol. 125, pp. 277–309, 2025, doi: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2025.03.429.
[5] A. Singlitico, J. Østergaard, and S. Chatzivasileiadis, “Onshore, offshore or in-turbine electrolysis? Techno-economic overview of alternative integration designs for green hydrogen production into Offshore Wind Power Hubs,” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Transition, vol. 1, Art. no. 100005, 2021, doi: 10.1016/j.rset.2021.100005.
[6] H. Groenemans, G. Saur, C. Mittelsteadt, J. Lattimer, and H. Xu, “Techno-economic analysis of offshore wind PEM water electrolysis for H₂ production,” Current Opinion in Chemical Engineering, vol. 37, Art. no. 100828, 2022, doi: 10.1016/j.coche.2022.100828.
[7] R. Travaglini and L. S. F. Frowijn, “Offshore or onshore hydrogen production? A critical analysis on costs and operational considerations for the Dutch North Sea,” Applied Energy, vol. 397, Art. no. 126290, 2025, doi: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2025.126290.
[8] S. J. P. Hill, O. Bamisile, L. Hatton, I. Staffell, and M. Jansen, “The cost of clean hydrogen from offshore wind and electrolysis,” Journal of Cleaner Production, vol. 445, Art. no. 141162, 2024, doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2024.141162.
[9] D. Jang, K. Kim, K. H. Kim, and S. Kang, “Techno-economic analysis and Monte Carlo simulation for green hydrogen production using offshore wind power plant,” Energy Conversion and Management, vol. 263, Art. no. 115695, 2022, doi: 10.1016/j.enconman.2022.115695.
[10] T. R. Lucas, A. F. Ferreira, R. B. Santos Pereira, and M. Alves, “Hydrogen production from the WindFloat Atlantic offshore wind farm: A techno-economic analysis,” Applied Energy, vol. 310, Art. no. 118481, 2022, doi: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2021.118481.
[11] M. Rezaei, A. Akimov, and E. M. A. Gray, “Techno-economics of offshore wind-based dynamic hydrogen production,” Applied Energy, vol. 374, Art. no. 124030, 2024, doi: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2024.124030.
[12] E. D. Stoutenburg, N. Jenkins, and M. Z. Jacobson, “Electrolysers for mitigating wind curtailment and producing ‘green’ merchant hydrogen,” International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, vol. 36, no. 1, pp. 120–134, 2011, doi: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2010.10.047.
[13] Y. Jiang, W. Huang, and G. Yang, “Electrolysis plant size optimization and benefit analysis of a far offshore wind-hydrogen system based on information gap decision theory and chance constraints programming,” International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, vol. 47, no. 9, pp. 5720–5732, 2022, doi: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2021.11.211.
[14] L. M. Dannappel, L. Cammann, S. You, Y. Zong, and J. Jäschke, “Design of wind-powered alkaline electrolyzers: Balancing economic performance, degradation, and safety,” Energy Conversion and Management, vol. 349, Art. no. 120820, 2026, doi: 10.1016/j.enconman.2025.120820.
[15] H. Zhang and T. Yuan, “Optimization and economic evaluation of a PEM electrolysis system considering its degradation in variable-power operations,” Applied Energy, vol. 324, Art. no. 119760, 2022, doi: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2022.119760.
[16] R. Vandenberghe, G. Humbert, H. Cai, B. P. Koirala, G. Sansavini, and P. Heer, “Optimal sizing and operation of hydrogen generation sites accounting for waste heat recovery,” Applied Energy, vol. 380, Art. no. 125004, 2025, doi: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2024.125004.
[17] A. Babiker, I. Ahmed, A. T. Al-Awami, A. Habib, M. Khalid, and F. Al-Ismail, “Optimal design and sizing of hybrid multi-electrolyzer systems for renewable energy driven green hydrogen in P2H systems,” Applied Energy, vol. 417, Art. no. 128043, 2026, doi: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2026.128043.
[18] T. Wang, X. Cao, and L. Jiao, “PEM water electrolysis for hydrogen production: Fundamentals, advances, and prospects,” Carbon Neutrality, vol. 1, Art. no. 21, 2022, doi: 10.1007/s43979-022-00022-8.
[19] H. Sayed-Ahmed, Á. I. Toldy, and A. Santasalo-Aarnio, “Dynamic operation of proton exchange membrane electrolyzers—Critical review,” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 189, Art. no. 113883, 2024, doi: 10.1016/j.rser.2023.113883.
[20] E. Wallnöfer-Ogris et al., “A review on understanding and identifying degradation mechanisms in PEM water electrolysis cells: Insights for stack application, development, and research,” International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, vol. 65, pp. 381–397, 2024, doi: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2024.04.017.
[21] F. Maoulida, D. Guilbert, M.-B. Camara, and B. Dakyo, “Dynamic electrical degradation of PEM electrolyzers under renewable energy intermittency: Mechanisms, diagnostics, and mitigation strategies—A comprehensive review,” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 225, Art. no. 116170, 2026, doi: 10.1016/j.rser.2025.116170.
[22] H. Sayed-Ahmed, R. Keller, Á. I. Toldy, M. Müller, D. Froning, and A. Santasalo-Aarnio, “Data-driven degradation analysis of proton exchange membrane electrolyzer stacks under dynamic load operation,” Energy and AI, vol. 25, Art. no. 100790, 2026, doi: 10.1016/j.egyai.2026.100790.
[23] J. Núñez, C. Lara, S. Tejos, L. Palma, L. Morán, and C. Carrasco, “Influence of dynamic operating cycles on the performance and degradation of PEM electrolyzers: A combined electrical, electrochemical, and morphological analysis,” Energy Conversion and Management, vol. 349, Art. no. 120883, 2026, doi: 10.1016/j.enconman.2025.120883.
[24] J. Park, S. Kang, S. Kim, H. Kim, H.-S. Cho, C. Lee, M. Kim, and J. H. Lee, “The impact of degradation on the economics of green hydrogen,” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 213, Art. no. 115472, 2025, doi: 10.1016/j.rser.2025.115472.
[25] M. Arnold, J. Brandt, G. Tjarks, A. Vanselow, and R. Hanke-Rauschenbach, “Cost-optimized replacement strategies for water electrolysis systems affected by degradation,” Energy Conversion and Management: X, vol. 28, Art. no. 101261, 2025, doi: 10.1016/j.ecmx.2025.101261.
[26] Y. Pu, Q. Li, X. Zou, R. Li, L. Li, W. Chen, and H. Liu, “Optimal sizing for an integrated energy system considering degradation and seasonal hydrogen storage,” Applied Energy, vol. 302, Art. no. 117542, 2021, doi: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2021.117542.
[27] T. Egeland-Eriksen and S. Sartori, “Techno-economic analysis of the effect of a novel price-based control system on the hydrogen production for an offshore 1.5 GW wind-hydrogen system,” Energy Reports, vol. 11, pp. 2633–2655, 2024, doi: 10.1016/j.egyr.2024.02.016.
[28] J. Park, S. Kang, S. Kim, H. Kim, S.-K. Kim, and J. H. Lee, “Optimizing green hydrogen systems: Balancing economic viability and reliability in the face of supply-demand volatility,” Applied Energy, vol. 368, Art. no. 123492, 2024, doi: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2024.123492.
[29] H. Sharma, G. Mandil, É. Monnier, E. Cor, and P. Zwolinski, “Sizing a hybrid hydrogen production plant including life cycle assessment indicators by combining NSGA-III and principal component analysis (PCA),” Energy Conversion and Management: X, vol. 18, Art. no. 100361, 2023, doi: 10.1016/j.ecmx.2023.100361.
[30] M. Tostado-Véliz, A. Rezaee Jordehi, S. A. Mansouri, A. Escámez, Y. Z. Alharthi, and F. Jurado, “Risk-averse electrolyser sizing in industrial parks: An efficient stochastic-robust approach,” Applied Energy, vol. 367, Art. no. 123389, 2024, doi: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2024.123389.
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